Literature Review of Artificial Intelligence, Automation; and Managing Change and Innovation

Literature Review of Artificial Intelligence, Automation; and Managing Change and Innovation

1.      Different authors and researchers have suggested different change management models mentioning various types of change management perspectives such as life-cycle, teleology, dialectics, evolution, social cognition, culture, biological, rational, institutional, resources, contingency, psychological, political, system and postmodern. Earlier in year 2010, Claire V. Brisson-Banks have studied eight (8) change and transition models including 3-Step Model by Kurt Lewin (1951), Burnes (2004), Richard Beckhard (1969), K. Thurley (1979), Bridges (1991), Rouda and Kusy Jr (1995), Armstrong (2006) and Kotter (2007) and she concluded “All these models are just guides to assist organizations through the world of constant change which exists today. While no one exact and perfect model exists for everyone, each has positive ways to handle change and can be adapted according to the organization”. She further mentioned “Change is evident everywhere from the simplest everyday changes to the most difficult situations encountered by human resource (HR) managers as management grapples with reorganizations, downsizing and/or cutbacks. A crucial factor in the effectiveness of an organization is the ability to adapt to change.”

2.      Managing change and innovation consists of numerous processes including initiating, planning, executing, controlling, improving and maintaining by providing necessary frame of works, trainings, supervision and inventive policies considering positive institutional, cultural, economic and social impacts. Management of everyday tasks, we all carry out intentionally or/and unintentionally but in general we don’t have regular flexibility to face changes even innovative or contemporary.  Graetz, F., Rimmer, M., Smith, A. and Lawrence, A. (2011) considered “change is a normal part of business life. In fact, the ability to enact meaningful change is critical to an organization’s competitive success however, successful change management is both challenging and intense. Four variable i.e. culture, context, knowledge and technology affect change. The purpose of change is to make an organization more productive by change can also fail as a consequence of organization members’ resistance to or lack of motivation towards the challenging of change”.

3.      Changes for a private firms are different from government organizations due to laws enforcement and applied regulations. Smaller businesses and private companies may adopt new technologies, innovative reforms and reorganization (acquisition, merger, and joint venture) smoothly as compared to larger setups and government corporations. Transformation, tuning, re-creation and change adaption may also depend upon the people’s psyche, organizational processes, management priorities, fear of losing control and jobs both on micro and macro levels. “change and innovation are over-lapping phenomena which involves the growth and/or development of one or more of a number of elements of a public service such as services design, organization structures, management and administration and skills require to manage” Osborne P. and Borwn K. (2005).

4.      Wallace, Mike., Fertig, Michael and Schneller, Eugene Ste wart. (2007) expressed “the evolutionary profile of innovation that programmatic reforms generate has to be implemented in intermediate administrative agencies and service organization. Each innovation may be at a different stage of implementation and is likely to compete for priority with other innovation, responses to unplanned chronic environmental pressure or temporary crises and the rest on ongoing service provision”.

5.      Dawson. P. and Andriopoulos. C. (2009) stated “Managing change in the uptake and use of new ways of doing things, generating and selecting ideas, translating ideas into innovations, and moving the organization forward to meet the shifting demands of dynamic business environments is a complex business”.

6.      “Managing change, creativity and innovation requires the utilization of an array of skills and competencies in the continual adaption to changing contextual circumstances. It is complex, demanding and difficult as it involves orchestrating interweaving and sometime contradictory processes towards a set of objectives that may themselves be refined and change over time. These processes have an ongoing history that is never static but open to change”.

7.      Artificial Intelligence (AI) is considered a technological advancement with permanent and recurrent potential (Anthes, 2017). Through advanced algorithms AI can replicate human behaviour at near-human levels of performance. For organisations this fast paced evolving innovation provides long-term economic viability, and provides substantial differentiation from present and future competition. The future of this space is not formally known and can realistically only be hypothesised, however, it needs to be explored. How the introduction of Artificial intelligence has already changed the way humans interact with other humans, and how it will continue to change, and what risk it has to social behaviours in the future are questions that need to be further explored, as the foundation characteristics of humans has largely been taken out of the equation.

8.      Coeckelbergh (2015) argues that the human-machine disconnect in a workplace is not so much that the human will become the slave to the machine, a common argument within the evolving workplace, more so that the human will attempt to remain the master. He explored and concluded that humans have already made themselves vulnerable to automation by transferring common tasks to machines. For example, using computer based technology to create, collate, and process orders for a business, has increased the output and improved efficiency, and subsequently replaced and simplified a monotonous or repetitive task. Exposing humans to innovation will always have a negative effect as the exposure is brought on to make improvements, and is generally at the hand of a human performed task. The need for robotics and AI to perform these tasks that are repetitive or vulnerable to human error is unfortunately the only way forward, due to the increased demand for products, and globalisation, hence the need to understand how Artificial Intelligence works and how to effectively manage its implementation into workplaces must be explored further.

9.      In the late 1960’s a well-respected psychologist, Wayne Holtzman, almost warned of the danger to society with the introduction of AI in the workplace, specifically in the clinical industry, and argued that it could be a catastrophic event if computers are to replace the work done by Physicians (Holtzman, 1960). In those days it would be hard to imagine how far advanced computer systems would be, and it was almost inconceivable that a simple device would improve a workplace, let alone, in some cases, replace the Physician entirely.  What has actually occurred is that the introduction of computers in the medical industry has not only improved the success rate of work done by physicians, but it has improved the quality of life of the society that he warned would be at danger. Moreover, now with the introduction of AI medical practitioners are now equipped with the latest and most up-to-date information and research findings from peers and respected researchers, as well as, the ability to conduct tests and receive results in a much shorter time. The limitations of AI in this industry is the human element, more specifically, human judgement, intuition, and emotion, these factors play a vital role in decision making and the diagnosis of a patients illness which has evolved from the amount of experience or knowledge that a practitioner collates from years of  working in their field of expertise. It would be easy to criticise his work, however, even now the technology advancements continue to defy societal views, and highly regarded experts continue to warn, that in the future AI could replace the human species all together.

10.  The notion that an entire workplace can simply be replaced by artificial intelligence is not forthcoming. We have seen many factories move to automation to improve efficiency, however, it is important to understand that many organisations operate as a system design. Specifically, they have many interconnected process that work in coexistence to perform a given task, the implementation of technology needs to be dealt with in the same manner as other systems, like an eco-system for example, each element needs to be explored and what impact will a sudden change have on the overall process. For example, the Yellowstone national park, in the North of the United States, eradicated the entire population of Wolves in the early 1900s based on the assumption that the removal of an apex predator would improve the eco-system (NSP, 2017). However, what was not anticipated was the importance of that element in the overall process, and how a sudden change might impact. Without the apex predator in Yellowstone national parks, a natural predator to the Elk resulted in the Elk population exploding, and with that the vegetation and food source for the Elk, which was also home to many other animals was decimated. Causing mass extinction and the result was catastrophic. Since then the national park has reintroduced Wolves into the eco-system and the park has returned to its original glorious state and has even flourished since. Using this example highlights the need for a planned introduction to new technology as a sudden change could ultimately have the same dire consequences.

11.  Some theorists argue that we have already taken steps towards a post human future (Waters, 2009). For example, through the advancement of pharmaceutical medicines we are able to increase the performance of the human body, specifically, the development of certain drugs have allowed us to be less dependent on sleep, a necessity of our mind and body that can consume on average one third of our lives. Additionally, with technology we are able to carry out even more tasks that previous generations have not had the capacity to do. For example, being connected virtually, through the use of AI, most people do not have the need to leave the house to perform basic human to human interactions like shopping, networking, socialising, or even finding love. In the future, we can anticipate that more robotics will begin to perform even more tasks like cooking and cleaning, and they may even replace the need for a companion or lover. The thought of this can be quite confronting, and it can be argued that the risk could be not what artificial intelligence will do to humans but what human to human behaviour may look like as we continue to evolve and mimic the characteristics of artificial intelligence, which does not express emotion or show consideration for other’s emotional wellbeing. Fundamentally, we should not discarded the values and principles of human behaviour that have served past and present generations successfully, more specifically the emotional, physical, and spiritual behaviours of the human mind and soul have been the foundations of our society.

12.  Human-robot interaction (HRI) is evolving in the workplace. Liang & Lee (2016) conceptualise a theory based on the Strategic Messages Affecting Robot Trust (SMART) framework. This framework identifies a perception of fear amongst society of robots, and they estimate that approximately one quarter of the U.S population experience high levels of anxiety towards robotics (Liang & Lee, 2016). Furthermore, from their research they conclude that in order to have effective Human-robot interaction (HRI), human-robot trust (HRT) must first be established. When it comes to understanding and developing new automation in organisations the notion of a master-slave scenario needs to be put aside, evidently automation is here now and it will only further increase, what needs to be thoroughly explored is the human-machine interaction, as well as, the change in human to human interaction which has transformed since the introduction of AI.

13.  The fourth industrial revolution is upon us discuss Baldassari & Roux (2017) how factories are run and how goods and services are delivered to customers and the contribution to the economy has been revolutionised, the blending of people, hardware, and software is now a common practice in many organisations. As the technology advances the cost of automation decreases, which results in many jobs lost to more efficient machines, and some argue that automation may prevent the economy from creating enough new jobs (Autor, 2015). In contrast to the theory that less jobs will be creating it is evident that what is actually happening is that new industries are being created to develop and optimise the innovation, which should encourage those that are wary to skill themselves from the arrival of the new and exciting opportunities that lie ahead.

14.  Managing change is this space is unavoidable as it is a necessity for the evolving global enterprise.  Ayhan. Aydin, & Öztemel, (2015) argue that it is the most important factor in leadership and managing organisational capabilities, particularly as manufacturing enterprises are entering advanced and constant technological changes to remain relevant.

15.  Dating back to the studies of Frederick Taylor, organisational goals are achieved through the effective management of planning, organising, leading, and controlling of the resources (Ayhan et al, 2015). This theory suggests that each process is no more or no less important than the other, which now compounds the abovementioned issue between human and robot and the hierarchy within the organisation. Building trust in any workplace can be an ambiguous task at the best of times, however, building trust between humans and AI will prove to be a historic moment in time.

16.  There continues to be extensive research and investment in developing robotics in organisations, explains Bruun, Hanghoj, & Hasse (2015), but a fundamental lack of exploration into the change in values, social aspect, and profession workspaces with human-robot interaction is apparent. Like any other change in technology, how it is received depends largely on the impact of social relations and values of that organisation.

17.  The complexity that comes with the introduction of robotics reflects the gap in credible and thorough literature on human-robot interaction (Bruun et al, 2015). Moreover, what is evident in the literature under revision is that most robots that are or have been implemented in current workplaces are tested under laboratory settings, not actual complex organisational systems.

18.  The organisations that are leading in these fields are those that focus on the optimisation of the entire organisation, not only are they investing in technology like automation, robotics, and complex computer management systems, they are investing in educating employees to better the workplace experience overall (Baldassari & Roux, 2017).

19.  In addition, the implementation of such technology in the major institutions such as Deloitte, Gartner, and IBM and the employee based educational programs being rolled out to support the new innovation transition, ultimately supports these institutions vision, and the belief that to achieve the best result it is critical that the human resource capital are involved in the transition process (Mihyun & Jaehyoun, 2016).

20.  Adam refered that there are number of theories and researches on innovation and change but those are clearly indicated that innovation is inevitable because competition and business sector is developing constantly all the time (2017).

21.  Therefore effective innovation and change is one of the key factors in an organisation. Graig (2009) pointed in his article that when innovation is stated, it is significant to identify that one key component is people; people are the source of creativity, which is the base for innovation. That means creative people are more likely to create new ideas, new thoughts and new innovations.

22.  Additionally, the creative people have to be innovative and come up with strategies that change the appearance of an organization. Their influence is not only felt in the inner environment but also in the outside environment. Moreover, organisations and individuals need to engage change creativity programmes in order to confirm company long term achievement (Maney, 2016).

23.  Research & Gownder (2017) further note that the embrace of automation technologies including hardware’s such as robots and digital kiosks and softwares such as artificial intelligence and customer self-service which entails things such as mobile ordering is continually reshaping the economy.

24.  Adams (2017) notes that despite that fact that the machines have not yet taken over, they are seeping into people’s lives and have a huge effect on how people work, live and entertain themselves.

25.   Adams, (2017) mentions the powerful presence of artificial intelligence in the world today which includes suggestive searches, personal assistants such as Siri and Alexa the autonomously powered self-driving vehicles.

26.  Adams (2017), however, cautions that the technology is still in its infancy and states that a true artificial intelligence system can learn on its own.  He maintains that a true artificially intelligent system must be capable of improving on its past iterations and get smarter and more aware which would allow it to enhance its knowledge and capabilities.

27.  However, Ford (2017) differs with Adams (2017) and states that the robots have already landed in the workplace and are expanding skills, moving up the corporate ladder, exhibiting increased productivity and increased rates of retention and pushing aside their human counterparts.

28.  Unlike Adams (2017) who things that robotics and artificial intelligence is in its infancy, Ford (2017) believes that they are already taking over.

29.  Ford (2017) gives an example of a multi –tasking bot from Momentum machines which is capable of making and flipping gourmet hamburger in 10 seconds thereby giving it the capability to replace the entire crew at McDonald's.

30.  Leading giant Google won a patent to commence building worker robots with personalities.  Autor (2015) agrees with Ford (2017) that robots will soon overhaul the economy.

31.  Researchers from Oxford University estimate that 47% of the jobs in the United States could be automated in the next two decades which will give workers a rude shock (Ford, 2017).

32.  Ford (2017) argues that computers, robots, machines, and algorithms will be able to do most of the routine, repetitive jobs. He maintains that the revolution will affect all levels from lower skilled jobs to professional degree holders like lawyers since their work will ultimately be predictable.

33.  Maney (2016) agrees with Ford (2017) and Research and Gownder (2017) that artificial intelligence will lead the whole world into a technological revolution. Renowned companies such as  Google, Microsoft, and Facebook have devoted their labs to robotics and artificial intelligence to build the best artificial intelligence that will give them a competitive edge in the market (Maney, 2016).

34.  Maney (2016) maintains that the unemployment line will start with drivers. Over 3.5 million people in the United States are currently employed as truck drivers.

35.  McKinsey Consulting Company predicts that in the next 8 years trucks will drive themselves on the roads which will render drivers jobless as was the case with gas station attendants when gas stations became automated (Maney, 2016, P.C, 2014).

36.  In the article of crowd-funding what is in it for us as librarians (Leman 2013 pp8-31), the author Leman discussed the importance of crowdfunding platforms, and take Kickstarter as example, told readers Kickstarter is synonymous for crowdfunding, and it as popular site to research funding for creative projects, the founders just pay for lower transaction fees after they can started their crowdfunding campaign.  There are many things we learn from Kickstarter such as operation system about how raise money. Kickstarter has penalty of projects, if founders didn’t finish the goal of crowdfunding, they need give certain money to Kickstarter so that motivating entrepreneurial to crowdfunding in shorter term.

37.  Another literature was written by Feller, Gleasure, and Treacy in 2013, this article talks about the peer- to-peer lending, which is a popular form of raise money, someone has demand for funds, they just send application to P2P platform, and then this platform will help these people financing with other people, but P2P platform as intermediaries would collect the payment from both customers and founders. This article just structure the research on P2P lending without considering the specific contents.

38.  Drawing on Kuppuswamy $ Bayus, (2013). Author introduces the investments received from backers can be returned to investors through the forms of equity and loan, which is best way both attracts investors and remain original funds. Bayus pointed out the crowdfunding of equity must make intention before start invest money on project, especially for the project covered R & D for a long time, like AI project with lots of uncertainties, because project could be damaged if backers withdraw capital at the end term.

39.  In the literature of Cadogan (2014). The focus of this article is crowdfunding for a project about library, and it addressed the importance of social media and internet platform, social media like Facebook can build positive relationship with others, and althrough different website of funding have different percentages, but internet platform is quite good way that can quickly financing in shorter term.

40.  However, most of these literatures show the project on different kinds of crowdfunding. In comparison with ordinary project, the AI projects are different, because investors have to spend lots of money in the earlier stage of crowdfunding so that advertise AI project and make marketing strategies (Elliott, Waller & Rundle-Thiele 2014 pp228-234).

41.  The crowdfunding for AI project need enough funds for a shorter term, which in order to account for the share in the market, in other words, the rapid crowdfunding is a best way to build stronger competitive in the industry (Elliott, Waller & Rundle-Thiele 2014 pp228-234).

42.  So, the crowdfunding for AI project by financial institution which is not good way raise money, in generally, financing from banks is usually available in the development of later stages (Berger & Udell, 1998; Robb & Robinson, 2014).

43.  Furthermore, P2P lending is very convenience for founders, but it cannot raise most money because of P2P lending is a kind of micro-finance. On the other hand, the establishment of various crowdfunding platforms online provides opportunities to founders, but there are some limitations in these platforms, such as only allows the projects based in America or UK (Taylor 2013).

44.  Less part of project can be successful finished due to absence of credit, especially for early stages, a small number of people invest money to project, which is hard attracts follow-up investment (Iyer, Khwaja, Luttmer & Shue 2009).

45.  Moreover, both equity finance and paper debt are suitable for large-scale project, which is relate to share allocations, but there are many AI robot projects are designed by smaller team, which cannot offer share to stakeholders (Bradner, Mark, Hertel, pp68-77 2005).

46.  According to all the above, we can utilize the advantages in different forms of crowdfunding, and make a new form of crowdfunding, which is combine the way of platform lending and donation. In this process of crowdfunding, the relationship acting as a core role, the team need try to use relationship with others in order to let more people invest money on the project (Saxton & Wang 2013), because the data and history of donation will be recorded and show it on the webpage, which is a better way attracts potential investors.

47.  The latter viewer of website find most of former have invested money to the project, this is way that enhancing credit level because of viewer are more willing to believe the project with most investors compare with other projects in the same platform. And we can send a thank you letter to the people who donated a small amount money, and for a bigger contribution, these people can interview with team leader (Kuppuswamy 2013).

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